ACTION RESEARCH FOR ESL TEACHING

Improving Teacher-Student Interaction
in the EFL Classroom: An Action Research Report
by Jonathan Snell

A common problem for EFL teachers is dealing with a passive class, where students are unresponsive and avoid interaction with the teacher. This is especially true when a teacher seeks interaction in a teacher-class dialog, such as asking questions to the class as a whole, expecting at least one student to respond. This can be a frustrating experience for both parties. Obviously, there will be times when no student can answer a teacher's question, but often students do not answer even if they understand the question, know the answer, and are able to produce the answer. Furthermore, students can often be very reluctant to give feedback or ask the teacher a question in front of the class. This action research project attempted to explore this problem and sought to create a more interactive teacher-class interchange in one class of Japanese adult English learners.

Action Research Defined

Action research is concerned with trying to improving one specific point in a teacher's technique in a particular classroom using empirical measurement. Richards, Platt & Platt (1992) have defined it as:

Teacher-initiated classroom research which seeks to increase the teacher's understanding of classroom teaching and learning and to bring about improvements in classroom practices. Action research typically involves small-scale investigate projects in the teacher's own classrooms. This usually includes having an observer collect data, and together with the teacher develop a plan to bring about the desired change, act on the plan, and then observe the effects of the plan in the classroom.

Class Description

The class observed was a group of twenty-three sophomores majoring in Japanese at a small private Tokyo women's college. The teacher was an American male with several years teaching experience at Japanese universities. The goal of this required class is to teach the students basic English conversation, reading, listening and writing skills. Their English ability level ranged from upper beginner to intermediate. During the observation period, the students appeared motivated and attentive, and they seemed to be enjoying the class.

Problem Identification

The students, as a class, didn't respond voluntarily to the instructor's questions and did not participate in class discussions. Students also never asked the teacher questions outside one-on-one situations. Thus the teacher received little oral feedback. According to the teacher:
Most of the class members sit looking straight ahead using minimal facial expressions, gestures and verbal utterances. What I want is for the students to be more demonstrative and more overtly communicative in their feedback. I want these behaviors: I want the students to ask questions, make comments and to respond with nods and shakes of the head, with sounds of agreement or sounds of understanding. Also, I want them to be both reactive and proactive.

Preliminary Investigation

I observed the teacher's class in the fourth week of the semester. In the first 45 minutes, the class went through an intermediate level taped dialogue. The students first listened to the tape with their books closed, then again with the books opened. Next, they did a dictation exercise consisting of 25 short sentences based on the dialogue. The teacher then talked about the sociolinguistic and grammar points of the exercise and went on to probe for comprehension:

T : Any questions? Do you understand everything?
Ss : Š(no one responds)
T : Okay, how many people were speaking?
Ss : Š(no response)
T : How many people were speaking?
Ss : Š(no response)
T : There were two. Two people. Were they friends or strangers?
Ss : Š(no response)Š

The teacher asked a few other questions which also drew no response or reaction from the students. The students then had to answer some questions about the conversation in their book. Most of the students seemed to have little trouble doing this, and if there were any questions, they readily asked the student sitting next to them.
The second half of the class was devoted to pair work using the phrases and vocabulary from the taped dialogue in role play. The students seemed to enjoy this, and most tried to create their own dialogues. The teacher circulated the room checking on the progress of each pair. The class atmosphere was markedly different from the first half of the class, with chatter and occasional laughter filling the air. The students answered most of the teacher's questions with alacrity, and some even asked their own questions.

Hypothesis

Because the students seemed to generally understand the teacher's questions, it was felt that there was something else that kept the students from responding voluntarily in the class-teacher dialogues. Since most Japanese students are taught to listen and not to question a teacher in class, Japanese students have little or no experience in in-class interaction with the teacher, such as questioning or commenting or giving feedback. Students are usually taught to be quiet and respectfully listen to the teacher.

By teaching the students that class interaction with the English teacher is not only acceptable, but normal, useful and beneficial, it was believed that the students would become more interactive with the teacher in teacher-class interaction.

Plan Intervention

Following the hypothesis, two steps were taken to implement a plan:
First, on the following class, the teacher distributed an explanatory paragraph about "rules" for asking questions in class in English speaking countries. The teacher made an exercise out of it and had students read the paragraph out loud to the class and explained a few difficult words and spent additional time expanding on the text. The "rules" were extrapolated from a culture point in Helgesen & Brown (1994) and were as follows:
Each culture has different "rules" about how students should act in the classroom. In some countries, students are expected to listen and only the teacher should lecture or talk in class. But in English-speaking countries (and in English class), it is good-and important-to answer the teacher's questions and interrupt with questions of your own. It means that you are interested and paying attention. In English, it is your job to ask questions if you don't understand. (p. 3)
The teacher went on to say that if they still felt uncomfortable asking and answering questions, they had to at least nod or shake their head as a response to the teacher's questions.
Secondly, the teacher reminded the students of the "rules" at the beginning of each subsequent class and further encouraged them to become more active in the class when the instructor was talking.

Outcome

In the eighth week of the semester, the class was observed again. A lesson similar to the one in the fourth week was presented. At the beginning, the instructor reminded the class of the "rules." After playing the taped dialogue twice, the teacher began talking about the dialogue, making grammar, usage and sociolinguistic points, interspersed with questions about the passage and the instructor's explanations. This went on for about twenty minutes and included general comprehension check questions such as 'do you understand?' and 'are you okay?' as well as specific questions about the dialogue.

Regarding general comprehension questions, most of the students did nod in response and a few answered 'yes' to these questions. And it was believed that they did, in fact, understand.
With the specific questions, however, something unexpected happened. When the teacher asked a question, he was usually greeted with poker-faced stares, as before. But when he moved closer, looked specifically at a student, or pair of students, and repeated the question, the students usually tried to answer. In general, I noted, the instructor was paying much more attention to the students, moving closer to them, and looking at specific students and trying to make a better connection with them. Instead of asking questions with the feeling that they really weren't going to be answered anyway, as before, the teacher made a greater effort to communicate the questions, and acted as if he expected to get responses.
Also, toward the end of the instructor's talk on the dialogue, two students, without prompting from the teacher, asked questions before the class. Although the questions were not related directly to the dialogue, the fact that the questions were asked before the entire class was considered a breakthrough.

Conclusion

There were some areas where the results of this action research were not as successful as hoped. For instance, the students needed to be prompted with eye contact and a repeated question from the teacher to answer a question, and when they did not understand something, they still did not interrupt the teacher with a question.
And yet some progress was definitely made, especially when the brief span between observations is considered. The students did interact with the teacher by nodding, some did answer the instructor's questions, and two, on their own initiation, even asked questions before the class. The unanticipated side effect of the teacher becoming more concerned with the interaction was a welcome surprise and contributed to the improvement. There seems to have been some success in instructing and reminding and then expecting the students to become more interactive with the teacher.

Reflection

This action research project forced both the teacher and the observer to remember that ESL teachers in Japan are not just teaching a language, but also a culture, and this includes instructing the sociolinguistics appropriate for the native English speaking classroom. Perhaps more importantly, they had to think about why the cultures are different, in this respect, and how to try and bridge that difference. This lead to questioning the conventional notion that Japanese students simply do not like the native English speaking classroom culture.
An additional reason for interest in the problem addressed here was the belief that this was a common problem in Japan. Teachers, especially native English speaking ones, often become frustrated with a lack of initial success in obtaining an interactive dialogue with the class. This often leads them to mistake a lack of familiarity with a lack of interest, and to teach within the students' culturally conditioned classroom expectations, instead of introducing the expectations commonly found in classrooms in English speaking counties. While intending to be more accommodating to students, they are failing to give students a useful sociolinguistic skill, which students would likely want and derive benefit. Some may think encouraging the use of this student-teacher interaction common in native English speaking counties is culturally arrogant. But if it is introduced in a sensitive and reasonable manner, it actually contributes to a more fulfilling English class. After all, most students don't study English just for linguistic competence. They will also want to develop sociolinguistic competence for communicating in different situations in English speaking countries, and this includes the classroom.

Reference
Helgesen, M. & Brown, S. (1994) Active listening: Building skills for understanding. Melbourne: Cambridge University Press.
Richards, J. C., Platt, J., & Platt, H. (1992) Dictionary of language teaching & applied linguistics (2nd ed.). Essex: Longman.

Type of Paragraph II

http://lrs.ed.uiuc.edu/students/fwalters/cause.html

Type of Paragraph I

http://lrs.ed.uiuc.edu/students/fwalters/compcont.html

Basic Essay Structure

http://lrs.ed.uiuc.edu/students/fwalters/essaybasic.html

Coherence and Unity

http://lrs.ed.uiuc.edu/students/fwalters/cohere.html

Basic Paragraph

http://lrs.ed.uiuc.edu/students/fwalters/para.html

Methods, Post-method, and Metodos

Methods, post-method, and métodos

A language teaching method is a single set of procedures which teachers are to follow in the classroom. Methods are usually based on a set of beliefs about the nature of language and learning.' (Nunan, 2003, p. 5).

Ask teachers what method they subscribe to, and most will answer either that they don’t follow a method at all, or that they are 'eclectic', and pick and choose from techniques and procedures associated with a variety of different methods. Some might add that, essentially, their teaching follows the principles laid down by the communicative approach, itself a mixed bag, embracing anything from drills to communicative tasks, and everything in between. But the concept of a single, prescriptive 'method' - as in the Direct Method, or the Oral Method – seems now to be dead and buried.

The end of methods

The demise of method is consistent with the widely held view that we are now in a 'post-method' era. Thus, as long ago as 1983, Stern declared that 'several developments indicate a shift in language pedagogy away from the single method concept as the main approach to language teaching' (1983, p. 477). One such development was the failure, on the part of researchers, to find any significant advantage in one method over another. As Richards (1990) noted, 'studies of the effectiveness of specific methods have had a hard time demonstrating that the method itself, rather than other factors, such as the teacher’s enthusiasm, or the novelty of the new method, was the crucial variable' (p. 36). Moreover, recognition of the huge range of variables that impact on second language learning fuelled a general disenchantment with the notion of a 'quick fix', or what, in the social sciences, is sometimes called the 'technical-rational approach', i.e. the notion that social change and improvement can be effected through the strict application of scientific method. This had very much been the mind-set that impelled the spread of audiolingualism, founded as it was on (now largely discredited) research into animal behaviour. The last decades of the last century, however, witnessed a challenge to 'scientism' in the social sciences, a challenge associated with the advent of postmodernism, and its rejection of the idea of universalist, objective knowledge. Accordingly, Pennycook (1989) argued that methods are never 'disinterested', but serve the dominant power structures in society, leading to 'a de-skilling of the role of teachers, and greater institutional control over classroom practice'(p. 610).

The postmethod era

At around the same time, Kumaravadivelu (1994) identified what he called the 'postmethod condition', a result of 'the widespread dissatisfaction with the conventional concept of method' (p. 43). Rather than subscribe to a single set of procedures, postmethod teachers adapt their approach in accordance with local, contextual factors, while at the same time being guided by a number of 'macrostrategies'. Two such macrostrategies are 'Maximise learning opportunities' and 'Promote learner autonomy'. And in a much-cited paper in 1990, Prabhu argued that there is no one method, but that individual teachers fashion an approach that accords uniquely with their 'sense of plausibility.'

Nevertheless, and in spite of the claims of the postmethodists, the notion of method does not seem to have gone away completely. In fact, it seems to be doggedly persistent, even if the term itself is often replaced by its synonyms. In the on-line advertising for language courses, for example, we find the following:
'Developed and used over years in the classroom, the earworms mbt® method has shown phenomenal success….'
'The Byki approach to learning languages… is the fastest possible way to lock foreign words and phrases in your long-term memory.'
'Rosetta Stone software is built around a concept called Dynamic Immersion, an [sic] unique learning method that uses a computer to mimic the ways in which you learnt your first language.'
It seems that – in the public mind, at least – the method concept is not dead. As Block (2001) notes, 'while method has been discredited at an etic level (that is in the thinking and nomenclature of scholars), it certainly retains a great deal of vitality at the grass-roots, emic level (that is, it is still part of the nomenclature of lay people and teachers)' (p. 72). This is a view echoed by Bell (2007) who interviewed a number of teachers on the subject, and concluded:

'Methods, however the term is defined, are not dead. Teachers seem to be aware of both the usefulness of methods and the need to go beyond them.' (p. 143).
On the other hand, in a recent paper, Akbari (2008) suggests that, in EFL contexts such as Iran, it is textbooks that have largely replaced methods in their traditional sense:
'The concept of method has not been replaced by the concept of postmethod but rather by an era of textbook-defined practice. What the majority of teachers teach and how they teach... are now determined by textbooks' (p. 647).

Textbooks and método

In fact, the conflation of method with textbook is an idea with a long history, especially in the Spanish-speaking world, where the two concepts share a single name: método. Direct Method and Grammar-Translation courses, in particular, were often named after their progenitor, as in El Método Kucera (Barcelona, 1954), El Método Girau (Barcelona, 1925), and the El Método Massé-Dixon (Barcelona, n.d.).

I, too, contend that the concept of method is not only alive and well, but has been reincarnated in the form of coursebooks, such that it would be valid to talk about the Soars and Soars Method, or the Cunningham and Moor Method, since it is coursebook series like Headway and Cutting Edge that – more than any other factor – determine and define current teaching practice. That is to say, rather than the método embodying a specific method, the método is the method.

What is a method?

What is it, after all, that defines a method? In their Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics (2002), Richards and Schmidt make the reasonable claim that 'different methods of language teaching... result from different views of:

a. the nature of language
b. the nature of second language learning
c. goals and objectives in teaching
d. the type of syllabus to use
e. the role of teachers, learners, instructional materials
f. the activities, techniques and procedures to use'
(p. 330)

Even a cursory glance at their content and at the way they are marketed confirms the fact that the writers and publishers of coursebooks take particular positions, either explicitly or implicitly, with regard to each of these areas. The theory of language that coursebooks instantiate, for example, is clear from their contents pages, where language is typically construed as a system of 'accumulated entities' (Rutherford, 1987), or what I have referred to elsewhere as grammar McNuggets. As Basturkmen (1999) concluded, after reviewing the cover blurbs of a number of current coursebooks, 'the emphasis [is] on the underlying generative base or language rules rather than on surface level aspects of use' (p. 34).
Coursebooks and second language learning
The 'nature of second language learning', as evidenced from coursebooks, seems generally to follow a cognitive model, where declarative knowledge is proceduralised through successive practice activities. The back cover of Inside Out (Kay and Jones, 2001), for example, makes the claim that 'easy-to-use exercises put rules into practice – and are then recycled as speaking activities'. As for 'the goals and objectives of language learning', these tend to be loosely aligned with those of the communicative approach. Inside Out, for example, 'has been designed to develop real-life communicative skills and powers of self-expression' (Kay and Jones, op. cit), while Cutting Edge (Cunningham and Moor, 1998) aims at 'improved confidence and fluency' as well as 'a clearer understanding of how language is used'. (There is, of course, no recognition that the discrete-item focus of the syllabus might be at odds with these more holistic objectives.) With regard to the syllabus, the grammar 'canon' predominates, but the influence of the lexical approach (Lewis, 1993) and of corpus linguistics is now apparent. Innovations (Dellar and Hocking, 2000) 'has a strongly lexical syllabus, presenting and practising hundreds of natural expressions which students will find immediately useful', and Natural English (Gairns and Redman, 2002a) offers 'a new syllabus area called natural English – accessible, high-frequency phrases which intermediate students can pick up and use'.

The role of the teacher

The 'role of teachers, learners and instructional materials' is most clearly demonstrated in the Teacher’s Book component, where the teacher’s role is both didactic and facilitative, and serves primarily to mediate the coursebook materials, by, for example, explaining, demonstrating and modelling language items, and by setting up and monitoring student interactions. For example (from Gairns and Redman, 2002b):
'Once learners have thought about exercise 1, go over the language in the natural English box. You could model the phrases and replies yourself and ask learners to repeat them, then practise the two-line dialogues across the class' (p. 24).
The guidelines typically construe the teacher as the locus of control in the classroom and even at times imply that the learners are potentially disruptive:
'Don’t let the false beginners dominate the real beginners or pull you along too quickly… Encourage [the false beginners] to concentrate on areas where they can improve (e.g. pronunciation) and don’t let them think they know it all!' [Oxenden and Seligson, 1996, p. 15]
Nevertheless, occasional reference is made to the need to encourage learner agency and autonomy. For example, 'Choices within tasks encourage learners to take charge of interactions' (Kay and Jones, op. cit). Unsurprisingly, though, the coursebook forms the core component of instruction: it is both the medium and the message.

Finally, the types of 'activities, techniques and procedures to use' draw on a range of methodological approaches (but scarcely ever involve translation, or encourage the use of, or any reference to, the learners’ L1). The influence of the communicative approach appears to be strong, with most courses including information-gap tasks, and texts that, if not authentic, attempt to simulate the same. There is a strong skills focus, and the distribution of the material is weighted more towards skills-based activities than language-focused ones. The dominant model for representing English is a native-speaker one, and both the topics and the design of the materials reflect an 'aspirational culture' (Gray, 2002) of travel, consumerism and popular culture.

Conclusions

Here, then, are the ingredients of a method, enshrined in a método. Teachers who claim not to be following a method, but who are using a coursebook, are as much method-bound as the Direct Method practitioners of Berlitz’s day, or the Audiolingualists of Lado’s. Of course, teachers will argue that they use coursebooks selectively, in accordance with their own principles as well as the needs of the learners. Fair enough, but however selective a teacher is, he or she is still tied to a theory of language, embodied in the way that the course selects and describes language, and to a theory of learning, as manifested in the way the course prioritises certain types of activity over others.

References

Akbari, R. (2008). Postmethod discourse and practice. TESOL Quarterly, 42/4.Basturkman, H. (1999) A content analysis of ELT textbook blurbs: reflections on theory-in-use. RELC Journal, 30/1.
Bell, D. (2007) Do teachers think that methods are dead? ELT Journal, 61.
Block, D. (2001) An exploration of the art and science debate in language education. In Bax, M, and Zwart, J.-W (eds.) Reflections on language and language learning: In honour of Arthur van Essen. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

SOLO INFORMATION

http://www.kotasolo.info

SCHOOLS REGRISTRATION ON LINE IN SOLO

http://www.ppdbsolo.net

Teaching and Learning Strategies

http://www.newhorizons.org/strategies/front_strategies.html

How to write English well

http://rwc.hunter.cuny.edu/reading-writing/on-line-text.html

The interactional view of language

Introduction

The interactional view of language sees language primarily as the means for establishing and maintaining interpersonal relationships and for performing social transactions between individuals.

Areas of research drawn on

Here are some of the areas of research in this view of language:

interactional analysis
conversational analysis
ethnomethodology

Target of language learning

The target of language learning in the interactional view is learning to initiate and maintain conversations with other people.

Approaches and methods based on this view

Some of the language learning approaches and methods based on this view of language are:

Strategic interaction
communicative approaches

Source

Adapted from Richards and Rodgers 1986

The communicative view of language

Introduction

The communicative, or functional view of language is the view that language is a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning. The semantic and communicative dimensions of language are more emphasized than the grammatical characteristics, although these are also included.

Areas of research drawn on

Here are some of the areas of research in this view of language:

sociolinguistics
pragmatics
semantics

Target of language learning

The target of language learning is to learn to express communication functions and categories of meaning

Approaches and methods based on this view

Some of the language learning approaches and methods based on this view of language are:

communicative approaches
functional-notional syllabuses
The Natural Approach

Source

Adapted from Richards and Rodgers 1986

The structural view of language

Introduction

The structural view of language is that language is a system of structually related elements for the transmission of meaning. These elements are usally descibed as

phonological units (phonemes)
grammatical units (phrases, clauses, sentences)
grammatical operations (adding, shifting, joining or transforming elements)
lexical items (function words and structure words)

Areas of research drawn on

Here are some of the areas of research in this view of language:

linguistic analysis
textual discourse analysis

Target of language learning

The target of language learning, in the structural view, is the mastery of elements of this system.

Methods based on this view

Some of the language learning methods based on this view of language are:

the Audiolingual method
Total Physical Response
the Silent Way

Source

Adapted from Richards and Rodgers 1986

ADJECTIVE CLASUSE (RELATIVE)

http://www.eslbee.com/AdjClauses.htm
http://www.iei.uiuc.edu/structure/structure1/adjclause.html
http://www.chompchomp.com/terms/adjectiveclause.htm
http://elc.polyu.edu.hk/cill/eap/2004/u6/relativeclauses.htm
http://web2.uvcs.uvic.ca/elc/studyzone/410/grammar/adj.htm
http://rwc.hunter.cuny.edu/reading-writing/on-line/relative_clauses.html

What is lesson study

Do you want to know the lesson study:
http://pbilessonstudy.blogspot.com/

Student's Activities

This class is very cheerful to write about frgament sentences in writing class.

John O Brien was explaining about Culture, Language and Education

Miss Handayani was paying attention to what John talking about


We are patient to wait for the Structure Class

Text Genre

http://english.unitecnology.ac.nz/resources/resources/text_forms/home.html

How to teach Vocabulary

http://www.d11.org/doi/Vocabulary/index.htm

Action Research for Language Classroom

Conducting Action Research in The Foreign Language Classroom :

Action Research References

Click the complete following action research sites:

http://www.emtech.net/actionresearch.htm

Classroom Action Research I

This articles about classroom action research
http://www.fldoe.org/ese/pdf/action-res.pdf

Teaching and Learning

Before teaching please read the web dealing with teaching and learning :
http://www.sasked.gov.sk.ca/docs/ela20/teach1.html

Teaching Speaking II

By flicking the following we you will know how to teach speaking :
http://www.sasked.gov.sk.ca/docs/ela20/teach2.html

Teaching Listening II

Let's see how to teach listening well :
http://www.sasked.gov.sk.ca/docs/ela20/teach3.html

Teaching Writing II

Wanna a good model in teaching writing, pleace flick this web :
http://www.sasked.gov.sk.ca/docs/ela20/teach4.html

Teaching Reading II

Teaching Reading II

Here one of strategies in teaching reading. Please flick it :

http://www.sasked.gov.sk.ca/docs/ela20/teach5.html

Teaching Pronunciation

Teaching Pronunciation

Pronunciation involves far more than individual sounds. Word stress, sentence stress, intonation, and word linking all influence the sound of spoken English, not to mention the way we often slur words and phrases together in casual speech. 'What are you going to do?' becomes 'Whaddaya gonna do?' English pronunciation involves too many complexities for learners to strive for a complete elimination of accent, but improving pronunciation will boost self esteem, facilitate communication, and possibly lead to a better job or a least more respect in the workplace. Effective communication is of greatest importance, so choose first to work on problems that significantly hinder communication and let the rest go. Remember that your students also need to learn strategies for dealing with misunderstandings, since native pronunciation is for most an unrealistic goal.

A student's first language often interferes with English pronunciation. For example, /p/ is aspirated in English but not in Spanish, so when a Spanish speaker pronounces 'pig' without a puff of air on the /p/, an American may hear 'big' instead. Sometimes the students will be able to identify specific problem sounds and sometimes they won't. You can ask them for suggestions, but you will also need to observe them over time and make note of problem sounds. Another challenge resulting from differences in the first language is the inability to hear certain English sounds that the native language does not contain. Often these are vowels, as in 'ship' and 'sheep,' which many learners cannot distinguish. The Japanese are known for confusing /r/ and /l/, as their language contains neither of these but instead has one sound somewhere between the two. For problems such as these, listening is crucial because students can't produce a sound they can't hear. Descriptions of the sound and mouth position can help students increase their awareness of subtle sound differences.

Here are some ideas for focusing on specific pronunciation features.

Voicing

Voiced sounds will make the throat vibrate. For example, /g/ is a voiced sound while /k/ is not, even though the mouth is in the same position for both sounds. Have your students touch their throats while pronouncing voiced and voiceless sounds. They should feel vibration with the voiced sounds only.

Aspiration

Aspiration refers to a puff of air when a sound is produced. Many languages have far fewer aspirated sounds than English, and students may have trouble hearing the aspiration. The English /p/, /t/, /k/, and /ch/ are some of the more commonly aspirated sounds. Although these are not always aspirated, at the beginning of a word they usually are. To illustrate aspiration, have your students hold up a piece of facial tissue a few inches away from their mouths and push it with a puff of air while pronouncing a word containing the target sound.

Mouth Position

Draw simple diagrams of tongue and lip positions. Make sure all students can clearly see your mouth while you model sounds. Have students use a mirror to see their mouth, lips, and tongue while they imitate you.

Intonation

Word or sentence intonation can be mimicked with a kazoo, or alternatively by humming. This will take the students' attention off of the meaning of a word or sentence and help them focus on the intonation.

Linking

We pronounce phrases and even whole sentences as one smooth sound instead of a series of separate words. 'Will Amy go away,' is rendered 'Willaymeegowaway.' To help learners link words, try starting at the end of a sentence and have them repeat a phrase, adding more of the sentence as they can master it. For example, 'gowaway,' then 'aymeegowaway,' and finally 'Willaymeegowaway' without any pauses between words.

Vowel Length

You can demonstrate varying vowel lengths within a word by stretching rubber bands on the longer vowels and letting them contract on shorter ones. Then let the students try it. For example, the word 'fifteen' would have the rubber band stretched for the 'ee' vowel, but the word 'fifty' would not have the band stretched because both of its vowels are spoken quickly.

Syllables

Have students count syllables in a word and hold up the correct number of fingers, or place objects on table to represent each syllable.
Illustrate syllable stress by clapping softly and loudly corresponding to the syllables of a word. For example, the word 'beautiful' would be loud-soft-soft. Practice with short lists of words with the same syllabic stress pattern ('beautiful,' 'telephone,' 'Florida') and then see if your learners can list other words with that pattern.

Specific Sounds

Minimal pairs, or words such as 'bit/bat' that differ by only one sound, are useful for helping students distinguish similar sounds. They can be used to illustrate voicing ('curl/girl') or commonly confused sounds ('play/pray'). Remember that it's the sound and not the spelling you are focusing on.

Tongue twisters are useful for practicing specific target sounds, plus they're fun. Make sure the vocabulary isn't too difficult.

The Sounds of English, American Accent Training, and EnglishClub.com websites below offer guidelines for describing how to produce various English sounds. You can find representative practice words for every English sound on the English is Soup site.

Here are some resources for teaching pronunciation.

Sounds of EnglishMouth diagrams and photographs; instructions for producing selected English sounds, word stress, sentence stress, and intonation; many example sound clips to play with audio software such as RealPlayer (free).
American Accent Training: PronunciationThe most common trouble sounds in English and how to pronounce them.
EnglishClub.com English Pronunciation - Pronunciation for ESL learnersGuides to word and sentence stress, linking, pronunciation of '-ed' and 'the,' and other topics.
Some Techniques for Teaching PronunciationDetailed instructions for two pronunciation activities.
English is Soup: A Phonics Resource For ESL AdultsMouth diagrams and representative words showing various spellings for every English sound; short introduction to rules of pronunciation based on spelling; PDF format. The Tongue Twister DatabaseLarge collection of tongue twisters to practice specific sounds.

Teaching Grammar

Teaching Grammar

Grammar is often named as a subject difficult to teach. Its technical language and complex rules can be intimidating. Teaching a good grammar lesson is one thing, but what if you're in the middle of a reading or speaking activity and a student has a grammar question? Some students may have studied grammar in their home countries and be surprised that you don't understand, "Does passive voice always need the past participle?" But even if your student's question is simple and jargon-free, explaining grammar is a skill you will need to acquire through practice. If you don't know how to explain it on the spot, write down the specific sentence or structure in question and tell the student you will find out. There are several resources below that can help you understand and explain various grammar issues.

Consider the following as you integrate grammar into your lessons.

Acknowledge your role.

As a volunteer, you aren't expected to be a grammar expert. You may have difficulty explaining the 'why' behind grammar points, but you can recognize 'right' and 'wrong' wording and your students will still benefit from your English sensibility.

Find good lesson plans.

It's difficult to make a good grammar lesson from scratch, so any searching you do for appropriate grammar lessons in textbooks or on the Internet will be time well spent. See the Lesson Materials section of this guide for possible resources.

Use meaningful texts.

The sentences you use to teach and practice grammar shouldn't be random. Choose material that is relevant. For example, if your learners are preparing for citizenship or need workplace English, use these contexts to create appropriate examples. If possible, bring in real-life, authentic texts to illustrate your points.

Teach basic grammar words.

Although you need not be fluent in grammar jargon, it's a good idea to teach at least some vocabulary (noun, verb, past tense, etc.) to assist you in your explanations. Intermediate and advanced students may be familiar with many such words already. As a practice activity, you can choose 2-3 parts of speech, specify different symbols for each (underline, circle, box), and have students mark their occurrences in a sentence or paragraph.

The links below will help you understand and explain various grammar points. The first two are from British sources, so don't be distracted by non-American spelling.
BBC Skillswise: GrammarFact sheets, games, quizzes, and worksheets on a variety of practical English grammar skills.
EduFind.com: Online English GrammarExplanations and examples of grammar points organized categorically; click on Table of Contents.
Guide to Grammar and Writing (Capital Community College Foundation)Concise explanations of hundreds of grammar points; uses a lot of grammar terminology.
Verb Tense Chart (Purdue Online Writing Lab)Active and passive verb tenses in past, present, and future forms with examples.
OWL Handouts: ESL (Purdue Online Writing Lab)ESL-oriented explanations of a variety of grammar issues.
Englishpage.com: Irregular Verb PageAlphabetical list of irregular verb forms; simple blank-fill worksheets for students by level. Eslflow.com: Grammar Lesson PlansLinks to off-site grammar lesson plans in many categories.

Teaching Writing

Teaching Writing

Good writing conveys a meaningful message and uses English well, but the message is more important than correct presentation. If you can understand the message or even part of it, your student has succeeded in communicating on paper and should be praised for that. For many adult ESL learners, writing skills will not be used much outside your class. This doesn't mean that they shouldn't be challenged to write, but you should consider their needs and balance your class time appropriately. Many adults who do not need to write will enjoy it for the purpose of sharing their thoughts and personal stories, and they appreciate a format where they can revise their work into better English than if they shared the same information orally.

Two writing strategies you may want to use in your lessons are free writing and revised writing. Free writing directs students to simply get their ideas onto paper without worrying much about grammar, spelling, or other English mechanics. In fact, the teacher can choose not to even look at free writing pieces. To practice free writing, give students 5 minutes in class to write about a certain topic, or ask them to write weekly in a journal. You can try a dialog journal where students write a journal entry and then give the journal to a partner or the teacher, who writes another entry in response. The journals may be exchanged during class, but journal writing usually is done at home. The main characteristic of free writing is that few (if any) errors are corrected by the teacher, which relieves students of the pressure to perform and allows them to express themselves more freely.

Revised writing, also called extended or process writing, is a more formal activity in which students must write a first draft, then revise and edit it to a final polished version, and often the finished product is shared publicly. You may need several class sessions to accomplish this. Begin with a pre-writing task such as free writing, brainstorming, listing, discussion of a topic, making a timeline, or making an outline. Pairs or small groups often work well for pre-writing tasks. Then give the students clear instructions and ample time to write the assignment. In a class, you can circulate from person to person asking, "Do you have any questions?" Many students will ask a question when approached but otherwise would not have raised a hand to call your attention.

Make yourself available during the writing activity; don't sit at a desk working on your next lesson plan. Once a rough draft is completed, the students can hand in their papers for written comment, discuss them with you face to face, or share them with a partner, all for the purpose of receiving constructive feedback. Make sure ideas and content are addressed first; correcting the English should be secondary. Finally, ask students to rewrite the piece. They should use the feedback they received to revise and edit it into a piece they feel good about. Such finished pieces are often shared with the class or posted publicly, and depending on the assignment, you may even choose to 'publish' everyone's writing into a class booklet.

Tactful correction of student writing is essential. Written correction is potentially damaging to confidence because it's very visible and permanent on the page. Always make positive comments and respond to the content, not just the language. Focus on helping the student clarify the meaning of the writing. Especially at lower levels, choose selectively what to correct and what to ignore. Spelling should be a low priority as long as words are recognizable. To reduce ink on the page, don't correct all errors or rewrite sentences for the student. Make a mark where the error is and let the student figure out what's wrong and how to fix it. At higher levels you can tell students ahead of time exactly what kinds of errors (verbs, punctuation, spelling, word choice) you will correct and ignore other errors. If possible, in addition to any written feedback you provide, try to respond orally to your student's writing, making comments on the introduction, overall clarity, organization, and any unnecessary information.

Consider the following ideas for your writing lessons.

Types of Tasks

Here are some ideas for the types of writing you can ask your students to do.

• Copying text word for word
• Writing what you dictate
• Imitating a model
• Filling in blanks in sentences or paragraphs
• Taking a paragraph and transforming certain language, for example changing all verbs and time references to past tense
• Summarizing a story text, video, or listening clip (you can guide with questions or keywords) Making lists of items, ideas, reasons, etc. (words or sentences depending on level)
• Writing what your students want to learn in English and why
• Writing letters (complaint, friend, advice) - give blank post cards or note cards or stationery to add interest; you can also use this to teach how to address an envelope
• Organizing information, for example making a grid of survey results or writing directions to a location using a map
• Reacting to a text, object, picture, etc. - can be a word or whole written piece FormatClarify the format. For an essay, you may specify that you want an introduction, main ideas, support, and a conclusion. For a poem, story, list, etc., the format will vary accordingly, but make sure your students know what you expect.

Model

Provide a model of the type of writing you want your students to do, especially for beginners.

Editing

Consider giving students a checklist of points to look for when editing their own work. Include such things as clear topic sentences, introduction and conclusion, verb tenses, spelling, capitalization, etc.

Correction

Minimize the threatening appearance of correction. Instead of a red pen, use green or blue or even pencil, as long as it's different from what the student used. Explain to the students that you will use certain symbols such as VT for verb tense or WO for word order, and be very clear whether a mark (check mark, X, star, circle) means correct or incorrect as this varies among cultures

Teaching Reading

Teaching Reading

We encounter a great variety of written language day to day -- articles, stories, poems, announcements, letters, labels, signs, bills, recipes, schedules, questionnaires, cartoons, the list is endless. Literate adults easily recognize the distinctions of various types of texts. This guide will not cover instruction for learners with little or no literacy in their native language; you will need to work intensively with them at the most basic level of letter recognition and phonics.

Finding authentic reading material may not be difficult, but finding materials appropriate for the level of your learners can be a challenge. Especially with beginners, you may need to significantly modify texts to simplify grammar and vocabulary. When choosing texts, consider what background knowledge may be necessary for full comprehension. Will students need to "read between the lines" for implied information? Are there cultural nuances you may need to explain? Does the text have any meaningful connection to the lives of your learners? Consider letting your students bring in their choice of texts they would like to study. This could be a telephone bill, letter, job memo, want ads, or the back of a cereal box. Motivation will be higher if you use materials of personal interest to your learners.

Your lesson should begin with a pre-reading activity to introduce the topic and make sure students have enough vocabulary, grammar, and background information to understand the text. Be careful not to introduce a lot of new vocabulary or grammar because you want your students to be able to respond to the content of the text and not expend too much effort analyzing the language. If you don't want to explain all of the potentially new material ahead of time, you can allow your learners to discuss the text with a partner and let them try to figure it out together with the help of a dictionary. After the reading activity, check comprehension and engage the learners with the text, soliciting their opinions and further ideas orally or with a writing task.

Consider the following when designing your reading lessons.

Purpose

Your students need to understand ahead of time why they are reading the material you have chosen.

Reading Strategies

When we read, our minds do more than recognize words on the page. For faster and better comprehension, choose activities before and during your reading task that practice the following strategies.

Prediction: This is perhaps the most important strategy. Give your students hints by asking them questions about the cover, pictures, headlines, or format of the text to help them predict what they will find when they read it.

Guessing From Context: Guide your students to look at contextual information outside or within the text. Outside context includes the source of the text, its format, and how old it is; inside context refers to topical information and the language used (vocabulary, grammar, tone, etc.) as well as illustrations. If students have trouble understanding a particular word or sentence, encourage them to look at the context to try to figure it out. Advanced students may also be able to guess cultural references and implied meanings by considering context.

Skimming: This will improve comprehension speed and is useful at the intermediate level and above. The idea of skimming is to look over the entire text quickly to get the basic idea. For example, you can give your students 30 seconds to skim the text and tell you the main topic, purpose, or idea. Then they will have a framework to understand the reading when they work through it more carefully.

Scanning: This is another speed strategy to use with intermediate level and above. Students must look through a text quickly, searching for specific information. This is often easier with non-continuous texts such as recipes, forms, or bills (look for an ingredient amount, account number, date of service, etc.) but scanning can also be used with continuous texts like newspaper articles, letters, or stories. Ask your students for a very specific piece of information and give them just enough time to find it without allowing so much time that they will simply read through the entire text.
Silent Reading vs. Reading AloudReading aloud and reading silently are really two separate skills. Reading aloud may be useful for reporting information or improving pronunciation, but a reading lesson should focus on silent reading. When students read silently, they can vary their pace and concentrate on understanding more difficult portions of the text. They will generally think more deeply about the content and have greater comprehension when reading silently. Try extended silent reading (a few pages instead of a few paragraphs, or a short chapter or book for advanced students) and you may be surprised at how much your learners can absorb when they study the text uninterrupted at their own pace. When introducing extended texts, work with materials at or slightly below your students' level; a long text filled with new vocabulary or complex grammar is too cumbersome to understand globally and the students will get caught up in language details rather than comprehending the text as a whole.
ESL textbooks are a good place to look for reading activities that include pre- and post-reading exercises. If you choose to select your own reading material, the following sites may be helpful.
EFL Reading. Free graded reading materials for ESL & EFL students & teachers.Limited number of texts for various English levels; includes exercises to be done before, during, and after reading.
English to goFive free printable low-preparation reading lessons with teaching instructions for beginner through advanced levels; more available with membership.
Themes From Rural LifeShort reading passages on farm life; reading levels not stated; illustrations and vocabulary lists included; written for adults.
Aesop's Fables - Online CollectionHundreds of fables; most will need language modified for ESL; try easier 'Selected Fables' first.
In 2002, Literacy Volunteers of America, Inc. and Laubach Literacy International merged to form ProLiteracy Worldwide. If your learners have basic literacy needs that you are unable to address, consider referring them to affiliates of a literacy program such as this one.ProLiteracy WorldwideFind specially trained volunteers in all 50 states to assist adult learners with literacy needs. ESL programs are available.

Teaching Speaking

Teaching Speaking

Speaking English is the main goal of many adult learners. Their personalities play a large role in determining how quickly and how correctly they will accomplish this goal. Those who are risk-takers unafraid of making mistakes will generally be more talkative, but with many errors that could become hard-to-break habits. Conservative, shy students may take a long time to speak confidently, but when they do, their English often contains fewer errors and they will be proud of their English ability. It's a matter of quantity vs. quality, and neither approach is wrong. However, if the aim of speaking is communication and that does not require perfect English, then it makes sense to encourage quantity in your classroom. Break the silence and get students communicating with whatever English they can use, correct or not, and selectively address errors that block communication.

Speaking lessons often tie in pronunciation and grammar (discussed elsewhere in this guide), which are necessary for effective oral communication. Or a grammar or reading lesson may incorporate a speaking activity. Either way, your students will need some preparation before the speaking task. This includes introducing the topic and providing a model of the speech they are to produce. A model may not apply to discussion-type activities, in which case students will need clear and specific instructions about the task to be accomplished. Then the students will practice with the actual speaking activity.

These activities may include imitating (repeating), answering verbal cues, interactive conversation, or an oral presentation. Most speaking activities inherently practice listening skills as well, such as when one student is given a simple drawing and sits behind another student, facing away. The first must give instructions to the second to reproduce the drawing. The second student asks questions to clarify unclear instructions, and neither can look at each other's page during the activity. Information gaps are also commonly used for speaking practice, as are surveys, discussions, and role-plays. Speaking activities abound; see the Activities and Further Resources sections of this guide for ideas.

Here are some ideas to keep in mind as you plan your speaking activities.

Content

As much as possible, the content should be practical and usable in real-life situations. Avoid too much new vocabulary or grammar, and focus on speaking with the language the students have.

Correcting Errors

You need to provide appropriate feedback and correction, but don't interrupt the flow of communication. Take notes while pairs or groups are talking and address problems to the class after the activity without embarrassing the student who made the error. You can write the error on the board and ask who can correct it.

Quantity vs. Quality

Address both interactive fluency and accuracy, striving foremost for communication. Get to know each learner's personality and encourage the quieter ones to take more risks.

Conversation Strategies

Encourage strategies like asking for clarification, paraphrasing, gestures, and initiating ('hey,' 'so,' 'by the way').

Teacher Intervention

If a speaking activity loses steam, you may need to jump into a role-play, ask more discussion questions, clarify your instructions, or stop an activity that is too difficult or boring.

Teaching Listening

Teaching Listening

Listening skills are vital for your learners. Of the 'four skills,' listening is by far the most frequently used. Listening and speaking are often taught together, but beginners, especially non-literate ones, should be given more listening than speaking practice. It's important to speak as close to natural speed as possible, although with beginners some slowing is usually necessary. Without reducing your speaking speed, you can make your language easier to comprehend by simplifying your vocabulary, using shorter sentences, and increasing the number and length of pauses in your speech.

There are many types of listening activities. Those that don't require learners to produce language in response are easier than those that do. Learners can be asked to physically respond to a command (for example, "please open the door"), select an appropriate picture or object, circle the correct letter or word on a worksheet, draw a route on a map, or fill in a chart as they listen. It's more difficult to repeat back what was heard, translate into the native language, take notes, make an outline, or answer comprehension questions. To add more challenge, learners can continue a story text, solve a problem, perform a similar task with a classmate after listening to a model (for example, order a cake from a bakery), or participate in real-time conversation.

Good listening lessons go beyond the listening task itself with related activities before and after the listening. Here is the basic structure:

Before Listening

Prepare your learners by introducing the topic and finding out what they already know about it. A good way to do this is to have a brainstorming session and some discussion questions related to the topic. Then provide any necessary background information and new vocabulary they will need for the listening activity.

During Listening

Be specific about what students need to listen for. They can listen for selective details or general content, or for an emotional tone such as happy, surprised, or angry. If they are not marking answers or otherwise responding while listening, tell them ahead of time what will be required afterward.

After Listening

Finish with an activity to extend the topic and help students remember new vocabulary. This could be a discussion group, craft project, writing task, game, etc.

The following ideas will help make your listening activities successful.

Noise

Reduce distractions and noise during the listening segment. You may need to close doors or windows or ask children in the room to be quiet for a few minutes.

Equipment

If you are using a cassette player, make sure it produces acceptable sound quality. A counter on the machine will aid tremendously in cueing up tapes. Bring extra batteries or an extension cord with you.

Repetition

Read or play the text a total of 2-3 times. Tell students in advance you will repeat it. This will reduce their anxiety about not catching it all the first time. You can also ask them to listen for different information each time through.

Content

Unless your text is merely a list of items, talk about the content as well as specific language used. The material should be interesting and appropriate for your class level in topic, speed, and vocabulary. You may need to explain reductions (like 'gonna' for 'going to') and fillers (like 'um' or 'uh-huh').

Recording

Your Own TapeWrite appropriate text (or use something from your textbook) and have another English speaker read it onto tape. Copy the recording three times so you don't need to rewind. The reader should not simply read three times, because students want to hear exact repetition of the pronunciation, intonation, and pace, not just the words.

Video

You can play a video clip with the sound off and ask students to make predictions about what dialog is taking place. Then play it again with sound and discuss why they were right or wrong in their predictions. You can also play the sound without the video first, and show the video after students have guessed what is going on.

Homework

Give students a listening task to do between classes. Encourage them to listen to public announcements in airports, bus stations, supermarkets, etc. and try to write down what they heard. Tell them the telephone number of a cinema and ask them to write down the playing times of a specific movie. Give them a tape recording of yourself with questions, dictation, or a worksheet to complete.

Look for listening activities in the Activities and Lesson Materials sections of this guide. If your learners can use a computer with internet access and headphones or speakers, you may direct them toward the following listening practice sites. You could also assign specific activities from these sites as homework. Teach new vocabulary ahead of time if necessary.
Randall's ESL Cyber Listening LabAround 140 listening clips and quizzes for students to access online; categorized into four difficulty levels, but activities marked 'easy' may be too difficult for beginners due to unfamiliar vocabulary; many include pre- and post-listening exercises; requires audio software such as RealPlayer (free) or optional interactive software like Divace.
The English Listening LoungeThirty free listening clips categorized into three difficulty levels for students to access online; more available with membership; requires audio software such as RealPlayer (free).

Suggestopedia

Lozanov's view:
· Suggestopedia is not the "narrow clinical concept of hypnosis as a kind of static, sleep like, altered state of consciousness"
· His nethod is different from hypnosis and other forms of mind control: These other forms lack "a desuggestive-suggestive sense" and "fail to create a constant set up to reserve through concentrative psycho-relaxation"
o Reserves are something like human memory banks
o Desuggestion involves unloading the memory banks, or reserves, of unwanted or blocking memories
o Suggestion involves loading the memory banks with desired and faciliatating memories
Authority: people remember best and are most influenced by information coming from an authoritative source
Infantilization: authority is also used to suggest a teacher-student relation like that of parent to child. In the child's role the learner takes part in role playing, games, songs, and gymnastic exercises that help "the older student regain the self-confidence, spontaneity, and receptivity of the child."
Double-Planedness: The learner learns not only from effect of direct instruction but from the environment in which the instruction takes place (e.g. classroom decoration, music, shape of charts, teacher's personality)
Intonation, Rhythm, and concert pseudo-passiveness
· Both intonation and rhythm are coordinated with a musical background. The musical background helps to induce a relaxed attitude, which Lozanov refers to as concert pseudo-passiveness
· The type of music is critical to learning success: Lozanov recommends a series of slow movements (sixty beats a minute) in 4/4 time for Baroque concerto (strung together into a half-hour concert)
· The body relaxed, the mind became alert

Total Physical Response (TPR)

Total Physical Response (TPR)

TPR is a language teaching method built around the co-ordination of speech and action; it attempts to teach language through physical (motor) activity. Developed by James Asher, a professor of psychology at San Jose Sate University, California, it draws on several traditions, including developmental psychology, learning theory and humanistic pedagogy.

Asher sees successful adult second language learning as a parallel process to child first language acquisition. He claims that speech directed at young children consists primarily of commands, which children respond to physically before they begin to produce verbal responses. He also felt that speaking should follow comprehension; only when students were comfortable with comprehension should they feel it necessary to produce language.

In the classroom, the learning takes place through the teacher giving instructions, which the students follow. Miming plays a large part, as does visualisation and imagination, e.g. students are asked to imagine that Pedro is a house, which can lead to instructions such as “knock on the door of the house” etc.

His approach or view of language was not quite clear. He seemed to use a mixture of inductive and deductive approaches:

Abstractions should be delayed until students have internalised a detailed cognitive map of the target languages. Abstractions are not necessary for people to decode the grammatical structure of language. Once students have internalised the code, abstractions can be introduced and explained in the target language.

He elaborated more on what he felt facilitated or inhibited foreign language learning:

There exists a specific innate bio-programme for language learning, which defines an optimal path for first and second language development. Brain lateralisation defines different learning functions in the left and right brain hemispheres. Stress (an effective filter) intervenes between the act of learning and what is to be learnt; the lower the stress, the greater the learning.

Finally, Asher did not view TPR as having to be the only method employed in the classroom:

We are not advocating only one strategy of learning. Even if the imperative is the major or minor format of training, variety is critical for maintaining continued student interest. The imperative is a powerful facilitator of learning, but it should be used in conjunction with many other techniques. The optimal combination will vary from instructor to instructor and class to class.

The quotation begs the question, what are abstractions? Tense, aspect, articles etc. – are they abstractions?

He seems to endorse the attitude that lexical chunks are central, and worth learning, but he does not elaborate on this.

Community Language Learning

Community Language Learning (CLL)

A method developed by Charles A Curran, a professor of psychology at Loyola University, Chicago. His application of psychological counselling techniques became known as Counselling-Learning; the use of counselling-learning to teach a language is known as Community Language Learning, CLL.

An example of a ‘humanistic approach’, CLL derives its primary rationale from Rogerian Counselling, in which the counsellor’s role is to respond calmly and non-judgementally to the client’s problem, and to capture, in his / her response, the essence of what the client is trying to say, thereby applying order and analysis to the problem.

In lay terms, counselling is one person giving advice, assistance and support to another who has a problem or is in some way in need. CLL draws on the counselling metaphor to redefine the roles of the teacher (the counsellor) and the learners (the clients) in the classroom.

The basic procedure of CLL has two main steps: investment and reflection. In the investment phase, the learner commits themselves as much as they are willing, as they engage in a conversation with other members of the learning community. In the reflection phase, the learner stands back and looks at what they, as part of the community, have done in the investment phase. As they do so, they remain part of the community.

As the process of learning goes on, the student’s role changes in the direction of greater and greater security and independence. In addition to the learners, there is at least one resource person, who knows the language being learnt, who also understands the native language of the learners and who has some expertise in a non-directive style of counselling.

Mechanically, the procedure is uncomplicated: the learners, seated in a circle, simply talk with one another in the foreign language, tape-record what they say, play it back, write it down and identify its component parts. The resource person stands outside the circle.

Psychological counselling
(client – counsellor)

1. Client and counsellor agree (contract) to counselling
2. Client articulates his/her problem in language of affect
3. Counsellor listens carefully
4. Counsellor restates client’s message in language of cognition.
5. Client evaluates the accuracy of counsellor’s message restatement.
6. Client reflects on the interaction of the counselling session.
Community Language Learning
(learner – knower)

1. Learner and knower agree to language learning

2. Learner presents to the knower (in L1) a message s/he wants to deliver
3. Knower listens and others overhear
4. Knower restates message in L2
5. Learner repeats the L2 message form to its addressee
6. Learner replays (from tape or memory) and reflects upon the messages exchanged during the language class

The Silent Way

The Silent Way

The term is slightly misleading, as the lessons were certainly not silent, and everybody spoke, including the teacher. It was developed in the 70s by Caleb Gattegno, who had previously worked as an educational designer of reading and mathematics programmes. there doesn’t seem to be one precise “Silent Way”; various interpretations exist. Very generally, the learning hypothesis underlying Gattegno’s work could be stated as the following:

1. Learning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates rather than remembers and repeats what is to be learned.
2. Learning is facilitated by accompanying (mediating) physical objects
3. Learning is facilitated by problem solving involving the material to be learnt.
Adapted from: p.81 Richards & Rodgers 2001 Approaches & Methods in Language Teaching Cambridge

Gattegno used a variety of materials, notably Cuisenaire rods (originally designed for maths by Cuisenaire, whom Gattegno had observed) and Fidel charts. Cuisenaire rods could be used to indicate word order, word and sentence stress, to learn colours, shapes, sizes, comparatives etc. – so abstract ideas and concepts as well as tangible. Fidel charts are ones containing words, letters, pictures and symbols, all supported by bright colours.

In one approach, the teacher might sit down with the class and only give instructions, e.g. “Take the blue rod” until this was done. if something else happened (e.g. a student takes a red one) the teacher might just say “no” unemotionally until the correct action happened. This is how colours could be introduced, then numbers etc. The teacher would say things only once; students could repeat things if they wanted to, for themselves or for others, but they had to concentrate on everything the teacher said, since he / she would say it only once. This was quite a ‘cold’ method.

Visuals / Cuisenaire rods were used extensively. This was due to Gattegno’s, and others’, opinions that visuals could help memory:

If the use of associative mediators produces better retention than repetition does, it seems to be the case that the quality of the mediators and the student’s personal investment in them may also have a powerful effect on memory.
Stevick 1976, quoted in Richards & Rodgers 2001 Approaches & Methods in Language Teaching Cambridge

There was a structured syllabus. The sentence was the basic unit of teaching, and grammar was only dealt with inductively. Vocabulary was considered central in language learning, and the choice of vocabulary to be introduced was crucial.

Students were encouraged to talk amongst themselves and peer-correct, trying out the new language.

Communicative Approach

Communicative Approach (or Communicative Language Teaching – CLT)

Until the mid-late 1960s, the Situational Approach in the UK and Audiolingualism in the US had dominated. However, by the middle 60s both were being questioned. Perhaps the prime academic mover behind this was Noam Chomsky, whose Syntactic Structures (1957) demonstrated convincingly that structural linguistics was incapable of accounting for the fundamental characteristics of language, in particular the apparent ability of language users to generate an infinite number of unique, individual sentences.

Although Chomsky might be said to have been the originator of the change, it was really those (like Hymes) who were criticising his approach as ‘sterile’ who informed the work of the leading reformers of CLT, such as Widdowson and Candlin.

Hymes’s view of communicative competence was:

A person who acquires communicative competence, acquires knowledge and ability for language use with respect to:
1. whether (and to what degree) something is formally possible;
2. whether (and to what degree) something is feasible in virtue of the means of implementation available;
3. whether (and to what degree) something is appropriate (adequate, happy, successful) in relation to a context in which it is used and evaluated;
4. whether (and to what degree) something is in fact done, actually performed, and what it entails.
Hymes 1972: 281 quoted in Richards & Rodgers 2001 Approaches & Methods in Language Teaching Cambridge

The Council of Europe (a regional organisation for cultural and educational co-ordination) reacting to the increasing interdependence in the members of the then Common Market was attempting to draw up a ‘unit-credit’ system, in which learning tasks could be broken down into “portions or units, each of which corresponds to a component of a learner’s needs and is systematically related to all other portions” (Van Ek & Alexander, 1980). In particular, the British linguist D A Wilkins proposed the analysis of language in terms of grammar and vocabulary. He described two types of meaning, Notional categories (ideas such as time, duration, quantity…) and Functional categories (requests, denials, complaints…).

The itemised lists of functions / notions, situations and roles were incorporated by the Council of Europe into a set of specifications for a first level communicative syllabus known as the Threshold Level (later an intermediate level, known as Waystage was introduced). The specifications of the Council of Europe continue to influence course book writers, syllabus designers and exam writers. The work of the Council, together with that of linguists such as Wilkins, Widdowson, Candlin, Brumfit and other (mostly British) applied linguists led to what has become known as the Communicative Approach.

Some of the characteristics of the communicative view of language are as follows:
1. Language is a system for the expression of meaning.
2. The primary function of language is for interaction and communication.
3. The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses.
4. The primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural features, but categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse.

Though comparatively little has been written on the theories of learning associated with CLT, the following principles can be inferred from its practice:
1. Activities which involve real communication promote learning
2. Activities in which the language is used to carry out meaningful tasks promote learning.

Audiolingualism

Audiolingualism is a linguistic, or structure-based, approach to language teaching. the starting point is a linguistic syllabus, which contains the key items of phonology, morphology, and syntax according to their order of presentation. The language skills are taught in the order of listening, speaking, reading and writing. Listening is used as training in aural discrimination of basic sound patterns. The general focus being on students gaining accuracy before striving for fluency.

The use of drills and pattern practice is a distinctive feature of the Audiolingual Method. The kinds of drills include:

Repetition: The student repeats an utterance aloud as soon as they have heard it. They do this without looking at a printed text. The utterance must be brief enough to be retained by the ear. Sound is as important as form and order.

Inflection: One word in an utterance appears in another form when repeated.
e.g. I bought the ticket. – I bought the tickets
He bought the chocolate. – She bought the chocolate.

Replacement: One word utterances replaced by another.
e.g. He bought this house cheaply, - He bought it cheap.

Restatement: The student rephrases an utterance and addresses it to someone else, according to instructions.
e.g. Tell him to wait for you. – Wait for me.
Ask her how old she is. – How old are you?

Completion: The student hears an utterance that is complete except for one word, then repeats the utterance in completed form.
e.g. I’ll go my way and you go….. – I’ll go my way and you go yours.

Transposition: A change in word order is necessary when a word is added.
e.g. I’m hungry. (so). – So am I.
I’ll never do it again. (neither). – Neither will I.

Expansion: When a word is added it takes a certain place in the sequence:
e.g. I know him. (hardly). – I hardly know him.

Contraction: A single word stands for a phrase or clause.
e.g. Put your hand on the table. – Put your hand there.

Others include transformation, integration and rejoinder.

The Direct Method

The Direct Method
John Locke (Thoughts concerning education, 1693) says:

“People are accustomed to the right way of teaching language, which is by talking it into children in constant conversation, and not by grammatical rules”

There were many in the 19th century who tried to apply natural principles of learning language, as a child does, to the second language classroom. Among those who tried was L. Sauveur (1827 –1907), who used intensive interaction in the target language, using questions as a way of presenting and eliciting language.

Many, like Saveur, believed that a foreign language could be taught without translation or the native language if meaning was given through demonstration and action. German scholar Franke believed that rather than use analytical procedures that focus on grammar rules, teachers must encourage direct use of the language. Learners should then be able to induce rules of grammar.

These principles became known as the Direct Method and became popular in America through Sauveur’s and Maximillian Berlitz’s commercial language schools. In practice, the Direct method stood for the following principles and procedures:

1. Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in the target language.
2. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught.
3. Oral communication skills were built-up in a carefully graded progression organised around

question-and-answer exchanges between teachers and students in small, intensive classes.
4. Grammar was taught inductively.
5. New teaching points were introduced orally.
6. Concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstration, objects and pictures; abstract

vocabulary was taught by association of ideas.
7. Both speech and listening comprehension were taught.
8. Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasised.

These principles are seen in the following guidelines for teaching oral language which are still followed in contemporary Berlitz schools:

Never translate: demonstrate
Never explain: act
Never make a speech: ask questions
Never imitate mistakes: correct
Never speak with single words: use sentences
Never speak too much: make students speak much
Never use the book: use your lesson plan
Never speak too quickly,

slowly or loudly: speak normally
Never be impatient: take it easy

Adapted from: p.11 & 12 Richards & Rodgers 2001 Approaches & Methods in Language Teaching Cambridge

Grammar Translation Method

The Grammar translation method, or classical method emerged when people of the western world wanted to learn "foreign" languages such as Latin and Greek. Its focus was on grammatical rules, the memorization of vocabulary and of various declensions and conjugations, translations of texts, doing written exercises. A class working with the Grammar translation

Method would look like that:

1. Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target language.

2. Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words.

3. Long elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given

4. Grammar provides the rule for putting words together, and instruction often focuses on

the form and inflection of words.

5. Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early.

6. Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical

analysis.

THE GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION METHOD

The Principal Characteristics:

1) The goal is to learn a lang. In order to read its literature

2) Grammar rules are studied with details, and memorized.

3) Translating sentences and text is essential.

4) Reading and Writing are the major focus.

5) Vocabulary are taught through bilingual word list, dictionary study, morization, and with

translation equivalents.

6) The sentence is the basic unit of teaching and lang. practice. Sentences are translated one by

one.

7) Accuracy is emphasized. Ss are expected to attain high standards in translation.

8) Grammar is taught deductively--that is, by presentation and study of grammar rules are

practiced through translation exercises.

9) The Ss’ native lang. Is the medium of instruction.

1. THEORY OF LANGUAGE

*** Language is a system of rules.

*** Literary lg is superior to spoken lg.

*** Lgs can be compared and contrasted.

2. THEORY OF LEARNING

*** Lg learning is primarily memorizing rules and facts in order to understand and manipulate

stuctures of lg.

*** Translation is used as a means of lg learning.

*** Learning is faciliated through attention to similarities between TL and NL.

3. OBJECTIVES

*** Reading literature and doing translations in both directions.

*** The goal of foreign lg study is to appreciate literature and increase mental capacity.

4. SYLLABUS

*** Structural

*** From simple to more complex.

*** Systematic presentation.

5. LEARNER ROLES

*** Tries to learn grammatical rules.

*** Read and write.

*** Translate.

*** Memorize rules.

6. TEACHER ROLES

*** Authority in the classroom.

*** The medium instruction is NL.

*** Grammar taught deductively.

7. LANGUAGE SKILLS to emphasize

*** Reading and writing

*** Translation

8. ACTIVITIES

*** Grammatical exercises and translation.

*** Vocabulary lists to memorize.

9. ERROR HANDLING

*** Mistakes are corrected immediately.

10. MATERIALS

*** Provide samples of literature.

*** Grammar taught deductively.

The History of TEFL

A chronological history of some of the major approaches and methods:

Grammar Translation (18th / 19th century to the present, particularly in teaching classical languages and in tertiary education)

The Direct Method (1860’s to present. Used in ‘method’ schools such as Berlitz and Callan)

The Reform Movement (1880s. Conceptualised by linguists and phoneticians to focus on the sounds of language and lead to the foundation of the International Phonetic Association in 1886)

Situational Language Teaching (developed in Britain and popular between the 30s and 60s by Palmer & Hornby, it focused on an oral delivery of language items relevant to specific language fields – currently gaining popularity in the ESOL field)

Audiolingualism (developed from the ASTP in the USA in the late 30s and 40s in involved intense courses – 10 hours a day, six days a week – with a lot of native speaker drilling)

Communicative Approach (both more or less synonymous – Wilkins & Widdowson’s Functional / Notional Approach approach popular from the 60s to present, especially in Britain )

Humanistic Approaches (1970s to present)
- The Silent Way (early / mid 70s – Gattegno’s system of learning through discovery)
- CLL (early / mid 70s – based on psychological counselling)
- TPR (mid 70s – teaching based on words and action)
- Suggestopedia (mid / late 70s – relaxation as a key point)

The Natural Approach (Krashen and Terrell’s idea of language learning based on an unconscious system of leaning - popular in the USA from the late 70s to present)

Task Based Learning (from the early 80s and gained popularity in the 90s)

The Lexical Approach (from 1990s to present – Michael Lewis’s approach that places a greater emphasis on lexis rather than grammar)