Community Language Learning

Community Language Learning (CLL)

A method developed by Charles A Curran, a professor of psychology at Loyola University, Chicago. His application of psychological counselling techniques became known as Counselling-Learning; the use of counselling-learning to teach a language is known as Community Language Learning, CLL.

An example of a ‘humanistic approach’, CLL derives its primary rationale from Rogerian Counselling, in which the counsellor’s role is to respond calmly and non-judgementally to the client’s problem, and to capture, in his / her response, the essence of what the client is trying to say, thereby applying order and analysis to the problem.

In lay terms, counselling is one person giving advice, assistance and support to another who has a problem or is in some way in need. CLL draws on the counselling metaphor to redefine the roles of the teacher (the counsellor) and the learners (the clients) in the classroom.

The basic procedure of CLL has two main steps: investment and reflection. In the investment phase, the learner commits themselves as much as they are willing, as they engage in a conversation with other members of the learning community. In the reflection phase, the learner stands back and looks at what they, as part of the community, have done in the investment phase. As they do so, they remain part of the community.

As the process of learning goes on, the student’s role changes in the direction of greater and greater security and independence. In addition to the learners, there is at least one resource person, who knows the language being learnt, who also understands the native language of the learners and who has some expertise in a non-directive style of counselling.

Mechanically, the procedure is uncomplicated: the learners, seated in a circle, simply talk with one another in the foreign language, tape-record what they say, play it back, write it down and identify its component parts. The resource person stands outside the circle.

Psychological counselling
(client – counsellor)

1. Client and counsellor agree (contract) to counselling
2. Client articulates his/her problem in language of affect
3. Counsellor listens carefully
4. Counsellor restates client’s message in language of cognition.
5. Client evaluates the accuracy of counsellor’s message restatement.
6. Client reflects on the interaction of the counselling session.
Community Language Learning
(learner – knower)

1. Learner and knower agree to language learning

2. Learner presents to the knower (in L1) a message s/he wants to deliver
3. Knower listens and others overhear
4. Knower restates message in L2
5. Learner repeats the L2 message form to its addressee
6. Learner replays (from tape or memory) and reflects upon the messages exchanged during the language class

The Silent Way

The Silent Way

The term is slightly misleading, as the lessons were certainly not silent, and everybody spoke, including the teacher. It was developed in the 70s by Caleb Gattegno, who had previously worked as an educational designer of reading and mathematics programmes. there doesn’t seem to be one precise “Silent Way”; various interpretations exist. Very generally, the learning hypothesis underlying Gattegno’s work could be stated as the following:

1. Learning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates rather than remembers and repeats what is to be learned.
2. Learning is facilitated by accompanying (mediating) physical objects
3. Learning is facilitated by problem solving involving the material to be learnt.
Adapted from: p.81 Richards & Rodgers 2001 Approaches & Methods in Language Teaching Cambridge

Gattegno used a variety of materials, notably Cuisenaire rods (originally designed for maths by Cuisenaire, whom Gattegno had observed) and Fidel charts. Cuisenaire rods could be used to indicate word order, word and sentence stress, to learn colours, shapes, sizes, comparatives etc. – so abstract ideas and concepts as well as tangible. Fidel charts are ones containing words, letters, pictures and symbols, all supported by bright colours.

In one approach, the teacher might sit down with the class and only give instructions, e.g. “Take the blue rod” until this was done. if something else happened (e.g. a student takes a red one) the teacher might just say “no” unemotionally until the correct action happened. This is how colours could be introduced, then numbers etc. The teacher would say things only once; students could repeat things if they wanted to, for themselves or for others, but they had to concentrate on everything the teacher said, since he / she would say it only once. This was quite a ‘cold’ method.

Visuals / Cuisenaire rods were used extensively. This was due to Gattegno’s, and others’, opinions that visuals could help memory:

If the use of associative mediators produces better retention than repetition does, it seems to be the case that the quality of the mediators and the student’s personal investment in them may also have a powerful effect on memory.
Stevick 1976, quoted in Richards & Rodgers 2001 Approaches & Methods in Language Teaching Cambridge

There was a structured syllabus. The sentence was the basic unit of teaching, and grammar was only dealt with inductively. Vocabulary was considered central in language learning, and the choice of vocabulary to be introduced was crucial.

Students were encouraged to talk amongst themselves and peer-correct, trying out the new language.

Communicative Approach

Communicative Approach (or Communicative Language Teaching – CLT)

Until the mid-late 1960s, the Situational Approach in the UK and Audiolingualism in the US had dominated. However, by the middle 60s both were being questioned. Perhaps the prime academic mover behind this was Noam Chomsky, whose Syntactic Structures (1957) demonstrated convincingly that structural linguistics was incapable of accounting for the fundamental characteristics of language, in particular the apparent ability of language users to generate an infinite number of unique, individual sentences.

Although Chomsky might be said to have been the originator of the change, it was really those (like Hymes) who were criticising his approach as ‘sterile’ who informed the work of the leading reformers of CLT, such as Widdowson and Candlin.

Hymes’s view of communicative competence was:

A person who acquires communicative competence, acquires knowledge and ability for language use with respect to:
1. whether (and to what degree) something is formally possible;
2. whether (and to what degree) something is feasible in virtue of the means of implementation available;
3. whether (and to what degree) something is appropriate (adequate, happy, successful) in relation to a context in which it is used and evaluated;
4. whether (and to what degree) something is in fact done, actually performed, and what it entails.
Hymes 1972: 281 quoted in Richards & Rodgers 2001 Approaches & Methods in Language Teaching Cambridge

The Council of Europe (a regional organisation for cultural and educational co-ordination) reacting to the increasing interdependence in the members of the then Common Market was attempting to draw up a ‘unit-credit’ system, in which learning tasks could be broken down into “portions or units, each of which corresponds to a component of a learner’s needs and is systematically related to all other portions” (Van Ek & Alexander, 1980). In particular, the British linguist D A Wilkins proposed the analysis of language in terms of grammar and vocabulary. He described two types of meaning, Notional categories (ideas such as time, duration, quantity…) and Functional categories (requests, denials, complaints…).

The itemised lists of functions / notions, situations and roles were incorporated by the Council of Europe into a set of specifications for a first level communicative syllabus known as the Threshold Level (later an intermediate level, known as Waystage was introduced). The specifications of the Council of Europe continue to influence course book writers, syllabus designers and exam writers. The work of the Council, together with that of linguists such as Wilkins, Widdowson, Candlin, Brumfit and other (mostly British) applied linguists led to what has become known as the Communicative Approach.

Some of the characteristics of the communicative view of language are as follows:
1. Language is a system for the expression of meaning.
2. The primary function of language is for interaction and communication.
3. The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses.
4. The primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural features, but categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse.

Though comparatively little has been written on the theories of learning associated with CLT, the following principles can be inferred from its practice:
1. Activities which involve real communication promote learning
2. Activities in which the language is used to carry out meaningful tasks promote learning.

Audiolingualism

Audiolingualism is a linguistic, or structure-based, approach to language teaching. the starting point is a linguistic syllabus, which contains the key items of phonology, morphology, and syntax according to their order of presentation. The language skills are taught in the order of listening, speaking, reading and writing. Listening is used as training in aural discrimination of basic sound patterns. The general focus being on students gaining accuracy before striving for fluency.

The use of drills and pattern practice is a distinctive feature of the Audiolingual Method. The kinds of drills include:

Repetition: The student repeats an utterance aloud as soon as they have heard it. They do this without looking at a printed text. The utterance must be brief enough to be retained by the ear. Sound is as important as form and order.

Inflection: One word in an utterance appears in another form when repeated.
e.g. I bought the ticket. – I bought the tickets
He bought the chocolate. – She bought the chocolate.

Replacement: One word utterances replaced by another.
e.g. He bought this house cheaply, - He bought it cheap.

Restatement: The student rephrases an utterance and addresses it to someone else, according to instructions.
e.g. Tell him to wait for you. – Wait for me.
Ask her how old she is. – How old are you?

Completion: The student hears an utterance that is complete except for one word, then repeats the utterance in completed form.
e.g. I’ll go my way and you go….. – I’ll go my way and you go yours.

Transposition: A change in word order is necessary when a word is added.
e.g. I’m hungry. (so). – So am I.
I’ll never do it again. (neither). – Neither will I.

Expansion: When a word is added it takes a certain place in the sequence:
e.g. I know him. (hardly). – I hardly know him.

Contraction: A single word stands for a phrase or clause.
e.g. Put your hand on the table. – Put your hand there.

Others include transformation, integration and rejoinder.

The Direct Method

The Direct Method
John Locke (Thoughts concerning education, 1693) says:

“People are accustomed to the right way of teaching language, which is by talking it into children in constant conversation, and not by grammatical rules”

There were many in the 19th century who tried to apply natural principles of learning language, as a child does, to the second language classroom. Among those who tried was L. Sauveur (1827 –1907), who used intensive interaction in the target language, using questions as a way of presenting and eliciting language.

Many, like Saveur, believed that a foreign language could be taught without translation or the native language if meaning was given through demonstration and action. German scholar Franke believed that rather than use analytical procedures that focus on grammar rules, teachers must encourage direct use of the language. Learners should then be able to induce rules of grammar.

These principles became known as the Direct Method and became popular in America through Sauveur’s and Maximillian Berlitz’s commercial language schools. In practice, the Direct method stood for the following principles and procedures:

1. Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in the target language.
2. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught.
3. Oral communication skills were built-up in a carefully graded progression organised around

question-and-answer exchanges between teachers and students in small, intensive classes.
4. Grammar was taught inductively.
5. New teaching points were introduced orally.
6. Concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstration, objects and pictures; abstract

vocabulary was taught by association of ideas.
7. Both speech and listening comprehension were taught.
8. Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasised.

These principles are seen in the following guidelines for teaching oral language which are still followed in contemporary Berlitz schools:

Never translate: demonstrate
Never explain: act
Never make a speech: ask questions
Never imitate mistakes: correct
Never speak with single words: use sentences
Never speak too much: make students speak much
Never use the book: use your lesson plan
Never speak too quickly,

slowly or loudly: speak normally
Never be impatient: take it easy

Adapted from: p.11 & 12 Richards & Rodgers 2001 Approaches & Methods in Language Teaching Cambridge

Grammar Translation Method

The Grammar translation method, or classical method emerged when people of the western world wanted to learn "foreign" languages such as Latin and Greek. Its focus was on grammatical rules, the memorization of vocabulary and of various declensions and conjugations, translations of texts, doing written exercises. A class working with the Grammar translation

Method would look like that:

1. Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target language.

2. Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words.

3. Long elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given

4. Grammar provides the rule for putting words together, and instruction often focuses on

the form and inflection of words.

5. Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early.

6. Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical

analysis.

THE GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION METHOD

The Principal Characteristics:

1) The goal is to learn a lang. In order to read its literature

2) Grammar rules are studied with details, and memorized.

3) Translating sentences and text is essential.

4) Reading and Writing are the major focus.

5) Vocabulary are taught through bilingual word list, dictionary study, morization, and with

translation equivalents.

6) The sentence is the basic unit of teaching and lang. practice. Sentences are translated one by

one.

7) Accuracy is emphasized. Ss are expected to attain high standards in translation.

8) Grammar is taught deductively--that is, by presentation and study of grammar rules are

practiced through translation exercises.

9) The Ss’ native lang. Is the medium of instruction.

1. THEORY OF LANGUAGE

*** Language is a system of rules.

*** Literary lg is superior to spoken lg.

*** Lgs can be compared and contrasted.

2. THEORY OF LEARNING

*** Lg learning is primarily memorizing rules and facts in order to understand and manipulate

stuctures of lg.

*** Translation is used as a means of lg learning.

*** Learning is faciliated through attention to similarities between TL and NL.

3. OBJECTIVES

*** Reading literature and doing translations in both directions.

*** The goal of foreign lg study is to appreciate literature and increase mental capacity.

4. SYLLABUS

*** Structural

*** From simple to more complex.

*** Systematic presentation.

5. LEARNER ROLES

*** Tries to learn grammatical rules.

*** Read and write.

*** Translate.

*** Memorize rules.

6. TEACHER ROLES

*** Authority in the classroom.

*** The medium instruction is NL.

*** Grammar taught deductively.

7. LANGUAGE SKILLS to emphasize

*** Reading and writing

*** Translation

8. ACTIVITIES

*** Grammatical exercises and translation.

*** Vocabulary lists to memorize.

9. ERROR HANDLING

*** Mistakes are corrected immediately.

10. MATERIALS

*** Provide samples of literature.

*** Grammar taught deductively.

The History of TEFL

A chronological history of some of the major approaches and methods:

Grammar Translation (18th / 19th century to the present, particularly in teaching classical languages and in tertiary education)

The Direct Method (1860’s to present. Used in ‘method’ schools such as Berlitz and Callan)

The Reform Movement (1880s. Conceptualised by linguists and phoneticians to focus on the sounds of language and lead to the foundation of the International Phonetic Association in 1886)

Situational Language Teaching (developed in Britain and popular between the 30s and 60s by Palmer & Hornby, it focused on an oral delivery of language items relevant to specific language fields – currently gaining popularity in the ESOL field)

Audiolingualism (developed from the ASTP in the USA in the late 30s and 40s in involved intense courses – 10 hours a day, six days a week – with a lot of native speaker drilling)

Communicative Approach (both more or less synonymous – Wilkins & Widdowson’s Functional / Notional Approach approach popular from the 60s to present, especially in Britain )

Humanistic Approaches (1970s to present)
- The Silent Way (early / mid 70s – Gattegno’s system of learning through discovery)
- CLL (early / mid 70s – based on psychological counselling)
- TPR (mid 70s – teaching based on words and action)
- Suggestopedia (mid / late 70s – relaxation as a key point)

The Natural Approach (Krashen and Terrell’s idea of language learning based on an unconscious system of leaning - popular in the USA from the late 70s to present)

Task Based Learning (from the early 80s and gained popularity in the 90s)

The Lexical Approach (from 1990s to present – Michael Lewis’s approach that places a greater emphasis on lexis rather than grammar)